When Lala Mustafa invaded Cyprus in the summer of 1570, landing on the coast of Larnaca at the head of the Ottoman fleet with an army of 180,000 soldiers, there were no Turks waiting to welcome him on the shore.
He landed, advanced, and slaughtered anyone who did not fall to his knees to worship him. He easily reached the outskirts of Nicosia and camped at Nisou and the surrounding area in order to organize his final attack.
The Venetians, who ruled throughout Cyprus at the time, were expecting the invasion, and it was their worst nightmare. They demolished churches, old buildings and makeshift structures and, at great speed, built the walls of Nicosia within three years. That is, they completed as much as they could, because only the first level of the fortifications had been completed when the Ottoman attack came. They enclosed the city so that it could withstand an assault and planned to construct a second level of walls, but they did not have time. The fortifications were designed by Paolo Savorgnano, the chief designer of Venetian fortifications in their various Mediterranean possessions. He was the same man who designed the fortifications of Heraklion, Crete, and elsewhere.
Diversion of the Pedieos River and a Water-Filled Moat
As part of their design, the Venetians diverted the course of the Pedieos River and attempted, if possible, to fill the moat with water. They wanted to make the task of the would-be conquerors of the city even more difficult. They did not have time to accomplish much: the Ottoman host thirsted for new conquests and blood.
The struggle was merciless. The successive assaults of the fanatical forces of Islam were halted by the Venetian cannons, and the defenders changed shifts on the bastions for more than a month. At the moat of Bayraktar, where the relevant mosque stands today, the defensive line was breached. The standard-bearer managed to climb the walls and plant his banner. The Anatolian forces saw this and rushed forward, entering the city and reaching the rear of the heroic Venetian fighters. Bayraktar was killed on the spot, but the damage had been done.
The Ottomans, thirsting for blood, rape and plunder, entered Nicosia. The heroic fighters had run out of gunpowder, and the end had come for all the aristocratic families of the city, and not only them. The Ottoman swords worked without pause. Mounted and foot soldiers, shouting as they advanced, beheaded anyone they encountered.
Account of an English Traveler
A characteristic account by an English traveler of the period, who had been trapped in the city and survived the massacre, describes the scene:
“… The lady’s maid was running down the street together with her mistress to hide, when a Turkish dagger cut through the air and severed her mistress’s head, which spun like a ball through the air. The maid stopped, opened her apron, picked it up, and ran with her mistress’s severed head to hide. She had not taken many steps when Ottoman fury beheaded her as well. The invaders spared neither maids nor servants, neither noblewomen nor young men, old men or small children of Venetian origin. The order was: ‘Kill them all.’
Local inhabitants were also executed with them, Cypriot Greeks who were in the service of their masters. Most of the Greek population survived, along with some Venetians who fled to the hills and central Cyprus. The streets of the city, foreign sources insist, were painted red with the blood that flowed. In proportion to the population, the massacre is described as greater than the fall of Constantinople.
Much worse followed in Famagusta, with the execution of Marcantonio Bragadin and the entire Venetian aristocracy, despite the agreement that had been made for the city to surrender and for them to leave with their galleys.
How the Turkish Cypriots Came About
The Ottomans conquered Cyprus in 1571, and it is evident that there was no Turkish element on the island at that time. After taking control and eliminating the Venetians, they divided the territory into pashaliks and left small, limited garrisons to supervise them. The fleet, together with the main body of the army, sailed elsewhere.
The question that arises is: Where did so many Turkish Cypriots come from, how did they emerge, and how did they become part of the Cyprus problem today?
There are many theories and interpretations regarding their presence, based on scattered historical sources.
They were supposedly people who converted from the Greek and Maronite communities of Cyprus in order to escape burdensome taxation and gain the benefits enjoyed by the ruling class. These people adapted according to the political circumstances and the times.
Panagiotis Chatzidimitriou writes that a significant proportion of the so-called Linovamvakoi constitute a large part of the Turkish Cypriot community today. As he explains, these Cypriots share the same origins as the Greek Cypriots. He points out that evidence of this is provided by the many Turkish Cypriot villages bearing the names of saints.
Phaedon T. Papadopoulos, PhD in Theology and scholar of religion, analyzes the subject of the Linovamvakoi—crypto-Christians of Cyprus—who, because of unbearable taxation and other pressures under Ottoman rule, declared themselves Muslims.
However, when Cyprus came under British colonial rule, a large proportion of the Linovamvakoi returned collectively to the Christian Orthodox community of Cyprus. The policy of the British colonial authorities, the dispute within the Church of Cyprus over the archiepiscopal throne, and other factors played an important role in interrupting the reintegration of the Linovamvakoi into the Christian community.
Common Roots
The conditions under British rule did not allow all the crypto-Christians, known as Linovamvakoi, to return to the Christian community.
Two books by Dr. Phaedon Papadopoulos, a Doctor of Theology and scholar of religion, present documented evidence concerning the composition of the Cypriot population.
The Linovamvakoi returned to the Christian community in large numbers when Cyprus came under British control. In some communities, the inhabitants were recorded as Muslims in one census and as Christians in the next. Thousands of inhabitants of Cyprus declared themselves Muslim by religion while listing Greek as their mother tongue.
There are examples of communities in which the inhabitants returned en masse to Christianity. According to Dr. Phaedon Papadopoulos and his study, such villages are found mainly in the Limassol district, including the villages of Akrounta, Agios Tychonas, Mathikoloni, Monagroulli, Palodia, Fasoula, Foinikaria, Pyrgos, Pano Kivides and Limnitis.
In the Nicosia district, the villages of Varisia, Lythrodontas and Evrychou are mentioned. In the Larnaca district, the villages of Livadia and Choirokoitia. In the Paphos district, the villages of Mamonia and Kritou-Marottou, and in the Famagusta district, the village of Liopetri. Large percentages of the population who joined the Christian faith are also recorded in many other communities.
The Linovamvakoi
According to Mr. Papadopoulos, the name Linovamvakos comes from a garment with two sides, one cotton and one linen. The outer cotton side represents the apparent identity of the crypto-Christians, while the inner side represents their hidden religious identity.
Mr. Papadopoulos has also published two books concerning the Linovamvakoi of Cyprus, containing very important documents. They are titled “Turks, Muslims or Crypto-Christians (Linovamvakoi)? An Introduction to the Co-Inhabiting Element” and “The Territorial and Demographic Aspect of the Cyprus Problem: Maps and Percentages in the Light of History.”
The two books present population census documents in which, in certain villages, all the inhabitants are recorded as Muslim in one census and as Christian in the following census.
A letter from residents of the villages of Ampelia and Pyrgos in the Tylliria region, dated January 6, 1882, is also published, in which residents ask the District Officer of Nicosia under British rule to be registered on the lists of Christians.
Document
The phenomenon of the return of the Linovamvakoi is particularly evident in the Tylliria region, which was commonly characterized as a Linovamvakoi region. The original letter of the Linovamvakoi of the villages of Ampelia and Pyrgos Tyllirias to the District Officer of Nicosia is reproduced below:
“Most Illustrious District Officer of Nicosia, Mr. Inglis,
We, the respectfully undersigned Linovamvakoi of the village of Ampelia and Pyrgos Tyllirias in the Lefka district, hereby humbly submit this petition to bring to the attention of Your Excellency that, although until now we have secretly been Orthodox Christians, because of our fear of the Turks ruling Cyprus, we have been compelled publicly to appear as Muslims.
Now, being under the free and religiously tolerant government of Her Majesty the Queen of the great English nation, we are encouraged not to conceal our religious beliefs and to declare that from this moment onward we wish to openly profess the Christian Orthodox religion.
We hope, Most Illustrious Sir, that our request will be heard by you and that you will order the necessary measures to be taken. We remain your humble servants.
Ampelia, January 6, 1882”
The Interruption of Reintegration
According to the evidence presented by Mr. Papadopoulos, the period from 1878 to 1914 constitutes the timeframe during which developments concerning the Linovamvakoi community took place, particularly those that acquired a mass character.
During this period, communities that were regarded as Muslim, Linovamvakoi or mixed returned permanently to Christianity, while others remained permanently within Islam.
The phenomenon of returning to the Christian Community reached such proportions that the expected development was the reintegration of all the Linovamvakoi into the Orthodox community. This, however, did not happen, and according to Dr. Papadopoulos the main reasons were:
- The effort to return the Linovamvakoi did not always receive the proper support from members and leaders of the Orthodox community. As a result, this created favorable ground for efforts by Muslims to keep them within Islam. All this coincided with disputes within the Church of Cyprus concerning the struggle over the archiepiscopal throne.
- For political reasons, the British administration not only failed to encourage the return of the Linovamvakoi, but instead did everything possible to discourage it. Bureaucracy was a major obstacle.
- A significant number of Linovamvakoi, because of military service or mixed marriages and, generally, because of many years of living under a Muslim identity, eventually leaned toward Islam.
- Uncertainty concerning the political future of Cyprus, and particularly rumors about the return of the Ottomans, acted as a restraining factor against the free expression of the Christian faith of the Linovamvakoi.
The Evidence
The names of saints in Turkish Cypriot villages are not the only evidence, but there are many other elements, such as the numerous churches and chapels found in many other Turkish Cypriot villages.
There are entire communities where Turkish Cypriot inhabitants knew no other language except Greek. For example, in the community of Louroujina, in the Nicosia district, until 1930 the students of the supposedly Muslim school, as well as their parents, spoke Greek and, when they experienced difficulties or injuries, called upon the Virgin Mary.
Greek was also spoken exclusively in the Turkish Cypriot village of Galinoporni in Karpasia. Even today there are elderly Turkish Cypriots whose only known language is Greek.
It is noteworthy that in one census, several thousand inhabitants declared themselves Muslim by religion while listing Greek as their mother tongue.
Under British rule, the Church had helped, in several cases, Linovamvakoi communities and individuals to return to the Christian community. As part of these efforts, assistance was provided for the construction of churches and schools.
However, this effort appears not to have been universal or continuous, partly because of the crisis within the Church, as mentioned above.
The Activities of the Evkaf
Religious and other figures within the Islamic community developed significant activity aimed at keeping the Linovamvakoi within the Muslim sphere, to which they theoretically belonged.
At the initiative of the Evkaf and with the assistance of wealthy Muslims, mosques were built and schools were established in villages of Tylliria.
Dr. Phaedon Papadopoulos maintains that very few Turkish Cypriots have their roots in the geographical region of Turkey.
He added that the Muslims who came to Cyprus during the Ottoman occupation originated from various Arab countries, such as Syria, for example. However, over time they were given a Turkish identity.
According to this view, the core of the Turkish Cypriot population consisted of crypto-Christians—the Linovamvakoi.
It is difficult, according to this argument, to simply describe Turkish Cypriots as Muslims of Cyprus, since most, as is commonly known, are not religious and do not maintain an Islamic religious sentiment. On the contrary, several Turkish Cypriots retain a Christian religious sentiment.
Villages Named After Saints and Turkish Cypriots
According to the population census tables of 1960, there were 634 settlements (villages) in Cyprus that year, of which 117 were exclusively Muslim (Turkish Cypriot).
This, of course, as Mr. Phaedon Papadopoulos emphasizes, does not mean that these communities had always been Muslim. On the contrary, there is sufficient historical evidence demonstrating the Christian past of the overwhelming majority of them.
Also characteristic are the exclusively Turkish Cypriot villages bearing the names of saints.
In the Nicosia district: Agios Epifanios Soleas, Agios Theodoros Tyllirias, Agios Ioannis Selemani.
In the Limassol district: Agios Thomas.
In the Famagusta district: Agios Andronikos (Topsou Kioyou), Agios Efstathios, Agios Iakovos, Agios Symeon, Agios Chariton.
In the Paphos district: Agios Georgios, Agios Ioannis.
Mixed villages also bear the names of saints, such as Agia Marina Skyllouras, Agios Georgios Lefkas and Agios Sozomenos in the Nicosia district; Agios Andronikos (Karpasia), Agia Anna and Agios Theodoros in the Larnaca district; Agia Varvara, Agios Isidoros and Agios Nikolaos in the Paphos district; and Agia Irini and Agios Epiktitos in the Kyrenia district.
The Turkish Cypriot leader Rauf Denktaş, who served for many years as a leader of the Turkish Cypriot community, came from a village bearing the name of a saint.
This was Agios Epifanios Soleas, where, in an initial population record, the overwhelming majority of the inhabitants were recorded as Christians. In a subsequent census, all the inhabitants were registered as Ottomans.
